Mysterious Greek inscription may reveal lost temple beneath Syria’s Great Mosque

Homs, known in antiquity as Emesa, has long been recognized for its historical importance. At the center of the city stands the Great Mosque, a landmark famous for its unusual oval design and deep religious significance.

The inscription was found at the base of one of the mosque's columns during restoration work. The site itself has a complex past. It is associated with the 12th-century ruler Nur ad-Din and is believed to have been built over a church dedicated to St. John the Baptist. That church may have replaced an even earlier structure, possibly a pagan temple.

A recent study published in the archaeology journal Shedet revisits the question of whether the mosque stands on the remains of the Temple of Elagabalus. For decades, historians have debated this possibility but lacked clear evidence.

Dr. Maamoun Saleh Abdulkarim, a professor of archaeology and history at the University of Sharjah and the study's author, believes the inscription could be the missing piece. He suggests it may help trace the origins of a site that has served as a place of worship across multiple religions over time.

"This inscription, uncovered during restoration work, provides new evidence in a long-standing debate: Was the Temple of Elagabalus located beneath the current Great Mosque in the city center, or was it situated in the archaeological layers atop the tell (mound), where the remains of the Islamic Citadel of Homs now stand?" explains Prof. Abdulkarim.

Layers of Religion in Ancient Emesa

For years, researchers have examined texts, coins, and archaeological remains to determine whether the Great Mosque once functioned as a temple and later as a church. The newly studied inscription offers fresh insight into this enduring question.

Prof. Abdulkarim is analyzing the inscription to better understand how the current mosque may connect to earlier religious structures on the same site.

"If its association with solar cult symbolism is confirmed, it may indicate a spatial continuity between the pagan sanctuary and the later religious structures built on the same site," he said, adding, "Such evidence would significantly strengthen the argument that religious transformation in Emesa occurred through architectural layering and reinterpretation rather than a complete break. It also underscores the importance of interdisciplinary collaboration between archaeology, epigraphy, architectural history, and heritage conservation."

The study presents Emesa as a city shaped by three major religious phases: paganism, Christianity, and Islam. It highlights how these transitions unfolded over time, offering a detailed example of cultural continuity and adaptation in the Middle East.

The research "examines the evolution of religious life in Emesa during Roman and early Byzantine times. It illustrates how the city's religious landscape changed from the worship of local gods, such as Elagabalus, to the general acceptance of Christianity in the fourth century AD," notes Prof. Abdulkarim.

"Examining the political and social factors that led to this transformation reveals a complex history of religious tolerance and struggle that ultimately allowed Christianity to flourish."

Greek Inscription Details and Translation

The inscription is carved into a granite block that forms part of a column base inside the mosque. Written in Greek, the text is directly etched into the stone.

According to archaeologist Teriz Lyoun, head of the Excavation Department in Homs, the inscription had been buried beneath the mosque floor and was first uncovered during excavations in 2016.

The base of the column measures 1×1 m. The inscribed portion covers about 75 cm of the front, with the remaining 25 cm forming a decorative frame. "The writing in the inscription image appears symmetrical, formal, and spaced in horizontal lines, a style common in formal dedication or commemorative texts. The design is a multi-line inscription arranged in straight horizontal lines, and the plaque is framed by a decorative top border," Ms. Lyoun explained.

Because of years of unrest in Syria, the inscription was not fully studied right away. In May 2016, historian Abdulhadi Al-Najjar shared an early translation on Facebook. "The passage in the inscription is characterized by a heroic and militaristic tone, depicting a warrior ruler compared to the wind, the storm, and the leopard, defeating enemies and imposing tribute with fierce royal authority," he wrote.

The text describes a powerful ruler using vivid imagery, comparing him to natural forces and predatory animals. Prof. Abdulkarim notes that the Greek contains grammatical irregularities, which were common in Roman-era Syria, where Aramaic was the dominant spoken language.

His analysis suggests the inscription strengthens the proposed link between the mosque and an earlier pagan sanctuary.

"This Greek inscription, even if it is epic in nature and not very detailed, provides clues to the connection between this mosque and a pagan building, perhaps the Temple of the Sun, especially since researchers have long proposed this connection. Thus, every inscription from the Roman era that is uncovered in this mosque will add more knowledge to our understanding of the subject," Prof. Abdulkarim noted.

From Pagan Temple to Church to Mosque

Prof. Abdulkarim emphasizes the importance of Emesa as both a religious and commercial center. Located along key trade routes connecting Antioch, Damascus, and the broader Levant, the city played a major role in regional history.

"The Roman identity of Emesa was fundamentally based on paganism," Prof. Abdulkarim writes. The city's religious life centered on the sun god Elagabalus, whose temple served as a focal point for rituals and festivals.

Although the inscription had been noted before, it had not been thoroughly analyzed in academic research until now. The new study argues that it provides strong evidence for both the presence and location of the Temple of the Sun during the Roman period.

For nearly a century, scholars have debated where the temple stood. According to Prof. Abdulkarim, the new findings may finally clarify its location.

"My research helps clarify many longstanding questions and offers new insights into the religious transformation of the site across successive historical periods. It demonstrates that the site later became a church and was subsequently transformed into a mosque after the Islamic conquest, an evolution also documented in the writings of Arab historians," he said.

The study also explores how Emesa transitioned from a center of sun worship to an important hub of Christianity during Roman and early Byzantine times. The temple of Elagabalus played a central role in shaping the city's identity, influencing its politics, economy, and culture.

The Priest Who Became Roman Emperor

The religious elite associated with the Temple of the Sun held significant power. One of its high priests eventually became Roman emperor.

Before ascending to the throne in 218 AD, Elagabalus served as the chief priest of the Syrian sun god. After becoming emperor, he attempted to elevate this deity above all others across the Roman Empire.

Despite this effort, the shift from paganism to Christianity in Emesa was gradual rather than sudden.

"Christianity did not replace paganism abruptly. Instead, both communities coexisted for generations," Prof. Abdulkarim explains. He notes that religious change often unfolds over long periods, with overlapping traditions rather than clear breaks.

A City That Preserved Its Past

Beyond the inscription itself, the study highlights a broader pattern in Emesa's history. Rather than erasing earlier traditions, the city adapted and reinterpreted them.

"The transformation of Emesa was not a rupture; it was a negotiation between old beliefs and emerging faith, with religious change reshaping not only sacred buildings but also power dynamics, identity, and urban space."

The Temple of the Sun, dedicated to Elagabalus, remained central to the city's identity even as its function changed. Over time, the same site served as a temple, then a church, and finally a mosque.

Despite these shifts, it continued to stand at the heart of the city's religious and political life, reflecting a remarkable continuity across nearly two thousand years.